![]() The Great Plains were depopulated and resistance to western expansion was effectively neutralized. ![]() The Blackfoot lost as many as 6000 people. The disease was carried further west by keel-boat and began spreading among the Blackfoot (Siksika). The Cree had also suffered enormous losses. ![]() Half of the Hidatsa, Assiniboine, and Arikara had died. The 31 survivors were enslaved by other tribes who settled on their land. Over a period of 7 months, the Mandan were reduced from 1600 people to 31. The outbreak was largely met with indifference from the Government in Washington and among the white fur traders. A bungled attempt at variolation resulted in many more deaths among Indians and whites alike. Upstream at Fort Union things were even worse. ![]() The deaths overwhelmed those who survived. Some killed their families by mutual suicide. Many committed suicide out of fear or despair. Some attacked whites as the bringers of the disease. Some tried to ward off the evil by clinging to their ceremonies and dances. As in all such cases, their deaths were horrifying with agonizing pain, hemorrhagic smallpox, bleeding from body orifices, the agony of skin peeling off. The death rate accelerated, until 8–10 Mandan were dying daily. The first Mandan death from smallpox occurred on July 14, 1831. None of the local Indians had been vaccinated. At Fort Clark some passengers disembarked but were still contagious. As the ship proceeded northward it had spread the infection to the local Indian tribes, the Lakota. The captain was unaware that one of his passengers, Jacob Halsey, was suffering from smallpox and had infected several of the passengers and crew. The vessel left the next day going northward to Fort Union on the Yellowstone River. Peters accordingly docked at Fort Clark on June 19 and unloaded its cargo. White fur traders had built a trade by exchanging trade goods for pelts. They planned to sell their furs in exchange for supplies. In May 1837, as spring approached, the Indians of the Mandan and Hidatsa tribes gathered at Fort Clark beside the Missouri River in North Dakota, to await the arrival of the first river steamer that year. Musser, in Great American Diseases, 2022 The high plains epidemic Also, thiamine retention is best with dry cooking (e.g., biceps femoris semi-intensive cooking at 149☌ compared with wet cooking at 177☌), but the converse is true for riboflavin, especially in ground (minced) cuts (40%) compared with fine cuts (32%) ( Dominguez, Gómez, Fonseca, & Lorenzo, 2014 Tornberg et al., 1997). Dry cooking procedures, due to rapid and significant loss of elastin and collagen nitrogen, especially in the case of the loin from longissimus dorsi, generates a negative effect on texture, juiciness, and flavor. (2014).īraising in a small quantity of liquid is a semi-intensive thermal treatment (85☌ and 65 min per 500 g), producing the best-quality results in the longissimus dorsi muscle because of acceptable losses of collagen nitrogen and fat diffusion. , Cyclic hydrocarbons, lineal hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, acids, alcohols, esters, pyrazines, furans and furanones, others. Effect of Cooking Methods on Percentage of Volatile Compounds of Foal Steaks. Several authors have reported microwaved samples as containing the least water compared with other cooking methods ( Broncano et al., 2009 Serrano et al., 2007 Chiavaro, Rinaldi, Vittadini, & Barbanti, 2009).įigure 3.6. In microwave processing, Clausen and Ovesen (2005) attributed reduced water content to evaporation and loss of fat. The lower water losses associated with grilled samples could be due to shorter cooking time ( Figure 3.4) and as result of a defined crust formed at the product surface, which physically traps water inside the flesh ( Vittadini et al., 2005). Heat-induced protein denaturation is the primary cause of water loss during cooking because less water is trapped in the protein structures ( Aaslyng, Bejerholm, Ertbjerg, Bertram, & Andersen, 2003). Cooking losses are affected significantly by the different types of thermal treatment, higher (29.9%) after microwave cooking and lower after grilling (19.1%) ( Brugiapaglia & Destefanis 2012 Serrano, Librelotto, Cofrades, Saánchez-Muniz, & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2007).
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